The science behind the dimension of Memory
Memory is defined as the ability to store and remember information. The memory processes involve three phases: Encode, Store and Retrieve. These processes can be systematised into different types of memory, namely short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory.
Short-term memory is the process of encoding and storing information and, in terms of duration, can last seconds or a few minutes. When information is used or recalled in this memory system, it is usually stored over a longer period of time. Working memory is the ability to manipulate information and store it temporarily in short-term memory. The information processed and stored in short-term and working memory is transferred to long-term memory when it is reused. In this type of memory, information can be stored for hours or decades and has an unlimited capacity. The information remains unconscious until it is needed. Information is usually stored through repetition, interpretation of the information or through the emotional aspects inherent in the memory.
Long-term memory also has several components and can be divided into declarative (explicit) and non-declarative (implicit) memory, the former of which can be categorised as follows Episodic memory, which includes prospective, retrograde and semantic memory, while the latter can be divided into five different types of memory, as follows: Conditioning, Super-learning, Habituation, Adaptation and Priming.
The brain benefits from new challenges. Cognitive stimulation builds up so-called cognitive reserve, which increases the complexity of neural networks and efficiency of processing and helps buffer brain pathology with advancing age. There is a very strong body of scientific evidence that shows that the more time people spend in cognitively stimulating activities, the lower their risk of cognitive impairment up to advanced ages. This holds for education, with more cognitive reserve built up with more time spent in schooling or formation, and with better quality of education (Lövdén et al., 2020). This also holds for occupation, with more cognitive reserve built up when individuals have more responsibility for things, persons or ideas; that is cognitive stimulation, usually referred to as occupational complexity.
Besides education and work life, also cognitively stimulating activities during leisure time or after retirement like doing crosswords or engaging in cognitively complex tasks, can increase cognitive reserve. Learning a second language, for example has been found to be associated with improvement in attentional switching, inhibition, working memory, and increased functional connectivity (Ware et al., 2021)
Categories making up the dimension:
- How to learn new things
When we learn new things, the newly acquired information remains in the short term memory and is mentally processed there. Incoming information is screened, but capacity and duration of the short-time memory are limited. Therefore, it is essential to engage in rehearsal to retain the learned information in the working memory.
Through repetition and encoding, which involves linking the new information with existing knowledge, the information can be transferred into the long-term memory. There are various effective methods that can be used for this, such as verbally repeating key elements of information, using cooperative learning methods or chunking, which involves combining separate items into larger, meaningful units (Banikowski & Mehring, 2017).
There are many different learning methods to facilitate learning new knowledge and memorise things. It is important to ascertain the appropriate method for your individual needs. The effectiveness can be determined by various characteristics, including cognitive abilities such as working memory capacity or general fluid intelligence (Dunlosky et al., 2013).
- Remember the important things, not everything
Short-time memory is very limited, as it can only hold a maximum of seven pieces of information and only for a brief period, specifically 10 to 20 seconds, in adults. The information in short-term memory can easily be forgotten if the focus is lost. In order to retain the information for longer than 20 seconds, you have to focus on the information, and the attention should not shift.
The human brain only has a limited capacity for attention and information processing, which is why it is important to remember only the most important aspects and not everything. External resources can be used to decrease the cognitive load, thereby enhancing learning performance and memory capacity (Banikowski & Mehring, 2017).
The Pomodoro technique, for example, is a learning method that promotes concentrated learning. It is achieved by splitting learning time into small intervals with regular breaks, thereby improving and sustaining the attention span (The Pomodoro Technique: An effective time management tool, 2020).
- Creating optimal conditions for recall
Reading aloud can be effective for improving memory encoding due to the dual effect of speaking and listening at the same time. Sufficient attention is necessary for successful learning. Information with emotional importance is also more likely to be remembered. The same applies to being clear about why you want to acquire knowledge and how it is relevant for you personally. In addition, it helps to get an overall view of what you want to learn and to understand the context in which what you want to learn fits (Banikowshi & Mehring, 2017).
It is important to note that memory recall is influenced by context dependent memory. If the recall of information takes place in an environment other than the usual one, the performance is statistically worse. Information is better retained when the individual is in the same environment as the original memory formation. Contextual memory is closely related to episodic memory, which involves remembering specific events or experiences.
Retrieval cues are necessary to facilitate memory recall. Various stimuli can be associated with memory including those beyond the semantic information directly associated with the target memory. This encompasses all stimuli encoded together with the specific target memory. Context-dependent memory is closely related to the concept of encoding specificity which highlights that information retrieval efficiency is heightened when the encoding and retrieval conditions align (Seddon, 2019).
- Memory Hacks:
Both nighttime sleeping and daytime napping facilitate the consolidation process, thereby consolidating new information in memory and reducing forgetting of new information.It was demonstrated that recalling word pairs after 24 hours was more successful if sleep took place right after learning rather than after a day of staying awake. Original theories assumed that sleep protects newly learnt information from interfering stimuli. Current theories assume an active function for sleep, whereby newly acquired information undergoes a process of consolidation during sleep.
Sleep reactivates recently encoded content and transfers from the temporary memory in the hippocampus to the permanent memory in the neocortex, without overwriting previous information. Two distinct sleep stages can be identified: rapid eye movement sleep (REM) and slow wave sleep (SWS). These occur cyclically and facilitate the learning of new information. During the SWS phase, consolidation and transfer to long-term memory occur through the reactivation of new information. This information is then stabilised during the subsequent REM phase (Payne et al., 2012; Rasch & Born, 2013).
Memory performance when recalling word lists, for example, is significantly more efficient after a nap than after being awake. However, the memory performance did not correlate with either the time spent in slow-wave sleep or the total sleep time during the nap. Both short and long naps during the day enhance memory compared to being awake. This suggests that even an extremely short nap is enough to enhance memory processing (Lahl et al., 2008).
In addition to the association between increased memory performance following a nap, there is also an association between napping and decreased mortality from coronary heart disease. Individuals who took naps had a 34% reduced risk of coronary mortality compared to those who did not nap. This association is more noticeable in working men (Naska et al., 2007).
Contextual changes can also affect memory. The alteration in context may impair cognitive processing in various areas. The “location updating effect” exemplifies this and explains that merely walking through doors can result in forgetfulness. Even imagining walking through a door can cause memory deficits. Thus, direct perceptual feedback is not essential in observing the “location updating effect”. Passing doorways can cause forgetfulness, both in physical reality and in the mental imagination (Lawrence & Peterson, 2014).
- Continuous learning:
Success is not only determined by cognitive skills and content knowledge, but rather by individuals’ beliefs, attitudes and values. A differentiation may be made between a “fixed mindset” and a “growth mindset”. Individuals holding a “fixed mindset” hold the view that intelligence is a stable trait. They construe obstacles and setbacks as an indication of their inadequacy in achieving success and hence avert them. People with a mindset that prioritises growth believe that intelligence is a changeable trait that can be enhanced through effort and guidance. As a result, they exhibit greater eagerness to test novel strategies and confront obstacles. The mindset is influential in that it affects a number of other factors. These include the type of goals you set for yourself, how you evaluate your own successes and difficulties, and how you deal with challenges (Limeri et al., 2020).
